The land of prophets and ancient civilisations—such as Iraq, Egypt, Syria, and Palestine—along with many other parts of the Arab world, has historically been a battleground for wars of religion and civilisation. While the political and economic agendas behind these conflicts have often remained unspecified, they are an established commonality. The breakup of the Ottoman Empire, achieved through strategic scheming and division into almost 26 new states, sowed seeds of disputes in their foundations. This was compounded by the installation of puppet governments by the main colonial powers of the time, a lesson that remains instructive in understanding the region’s contemporary challenges.

The partition of the Ottoman Empire (30 October 1918 – 1 November 1922) was a geopolitical event following World War I and the occupation of Constantinople by British, French, and Italian troops in November 1918. The partitioning was outlined in agreements among the Allied Powers during the early stages of the war, notably the Sykes-Picot Agreement, after the Ottoman Empire joined Germany in the Ottoman–German alliance. This vast conglomeration of territories and peoples was divided into several new states. The Ottoman Empire had been the leading Islamic state in geopolitical, cultural, and ideological terms. Its partitioning led to the domination of the Middle East by Western powers such as Britain and France, giving rise to the modern Arab world and the Republic of Turkey. Resistance to these powers arose through the Turkish National Movement but did not gain significant traction in other post-Ottoman states until the rapid decolonisation period following World War II.

The violent establishment of protectorates in Iraq and Palestine, and the proposed division of Syria along communal lines, appears to have been part of a broader strategy to ensure tensions in the Middle East. This, in turn, necessitated the role of Western colonial powers (primarily Britain, France, and Italy) as peace brokers and arms suppliers. The League of Nations mandate granted the French authority over Syria and Lebanon and the British authority over Mesopotamia (later Iraq) and Palestine. Palestine was later divided into Mandatory Palestine and the Emirate of Transjordan (1921–1946). The Ottoman Empire’s possessions in the Arabian Peninsula became the Kingdom of Hejaz, annexed by the Sultanate of Nejd (modern Saudi Arabia), and the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen. Territories on the western shores of the Persian Gulf were annexed by Saudi Arabia (such as al-Ahsa and Qatif) or remained British protectorates (Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar), eventually forming the Arab States of the Persian Gulf.

After the collapse of the Ottoman government, its representatives signed the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920. This treaty proposed to partition much of present-day Turkey among France, the United Kingdom, Greece, and Italy. However, the Turkish War of Independence forced Western European powers to renegotiate. This resulted in the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres and resolved most territorial issues.

The British and French divided the Syrian region through the Sykes-Picot Agreement, with other secret arrangements involving Italy and Russia. The Zionist movement, having successfully lobbied for the Balfour Declaration, further pushed for a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Russia, a Triple Entente member, abstained from the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire following the Russian Revolution. The Treaty of Sèvres acknowledged new League of Nations mandates in the region, the independence of Yemen, and British sovereignty over Cyprus. France created the territory of Greater Lebanon, which later became modern Lebanon.

In contemporary times, the systematic destruction of Iraq, Libya, and Afghanistan by the United States and its allies, along with the humiliating overthrow of their rulers, has highlighted the persistent exploitation of the Middle East. Despite the outright plunder of national wealth and natural resources, other Muslim states have largely remained passive. The ongoing disintegration of Syria exemplifies this historical trajectory. Syria appears to be balkanised, with the United States and Israel emerging as the primary beneficiaries. The Golan Heights have fallen into Israeli hands, ensuring the erosion of Syria’s military potential, while the United States occupies its natural resources. Russia and Iran have faced substantial setbacks in the region, with Turkey oscillating between these powers.

“A house divided against itself cannot stand” is a critical lesson drawn from the plight of Syria and other devastated Muslim nations. Disrespect for public mandates, the manipulation of constitutions, undermining of judiciaries, suppression of citizens, moral decay, hate-filled rhetoric, curtailment of freedoms, rampant corruption, lingering sectarian and ethnic divisions, nepotism, and meritocracy’s demise have been commonalities across these nations. These weaknesses paved the way for foreign interventions. The question remains: is Pakistan any different?

Saleem Qamar Butt
The writer is a retired senior army officer with experience in international relations, military diplomacy and analysis of geo-political and strategic security issues.